What is System Development Life Cycle Essay Example For Students

What is System Development Life Cycle? Essay January 9, 2015HYPERLINK https://airbrake.io/blog/author/motea o View all posts by Motea AlwanMoteaAlwanininsight System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a series of six main phases to create a hardware system only, a software system only or a combination of both to meet or exceed customers expectations. Systemis a broad and a general term, and as per to Wikipedia; Asystemis a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole its a term that can be used in different industries, thereforeSoftware Development Life Cycleis a limited term that explains the phases of creating a software component that integrates with other software components to create the whole system. Below well take a general look on System Development Life Cycle phases, bearing in mind that each system is different from the other in terms of complexity, required components and expected solutions and functionalities: System Development Life Cycle Phases: 1- System Planning The Planning phase is the most crucial step in creating a successful system, during this phase you decide exactly what you want to do and the problems youre trying to solve, by: Defining the problems, the objectives and the resources such as personnel and costs. We will write a custom essay on What is System Development Life Cycle? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Studying the ability of proposing alternative solutions after meeting with clients, suppliers, consultants and employees. Studying how to make your product better than your competitors. After analyzing this data you will have three choices: develop a new system, improve the current system or leave the system as it is. 2-SystemAnalysis The end-users requirements should be determined and documented, what their expectations are for the system, and how it will perform. A feasibility study will be made for the project as well, involving determining whether its organizationally, economically, socially, technologically feasible.itsvery important to maintain strong communication level with the clients to make sure you have a clear vision of the finished product and its function. 3- System Design The design phase comes after a good understanding of customers requirements, this phase defines the elements of a system, the components, the security level, modules, architecture and the different interfaces and type of data that goes through the system. A general system design can be done with a pen and a piece of paper to determine how the system will look like and how it will function, and then a detailed and expanded system design is produced, and it will meet all functional and technical requirements, logically and physically. 4- Implementation and Deployment This phase comes after a complete understanding of system requirements and specifications, its the actual construction process after having a complete and illustrated design for the requested system. In the Software Development Life Cycle, the actual code is written here, and if the system contains hardware, then the implementation phase will contain configuration and fine-tuning for the hardware to meet certain requirements and functions. In this phase, the system is ready to be deployed and installed in customers premises, ready to become running, live and productive, training may be required for end users to make sure they know how to use the system and to get familiar with it, the implementation phase may take a long time and that depends on the complexity of the system and the solution it presents. 5- System Testing and Integration Bringing different components and subsystems together to create the whole integrated system, and thenIntroducingthe system to different inputs to obtain and analyze its outputs and behavior and the way it functions. Testing is becoming more and more important to ensure customers satisfaction, and it requires no knowledge in coding, hardware configuration or design. Testing can be performed by real users, or by a team of specialized personnel, it can also be systematic and automated to ensure that the actual outcomes are compared and equal to the predicted and desired outcomes. .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .postImageUrl , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:hover , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:visited , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:active { border:0!important; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:active , .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6720ebd0ca8d2badbc2f035183705fdb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Carl Gauss Was A Man Who Is Known For Making A Great Deal Breakthrough Essay 6- SystemMaintenance In this phase, periodic maintenance for the system will be carried out to make sure that the system wont become obsolete, this will include replacing the old hardware and continuously evaluating systems performance, it also includes providing latest updates for certain components to make sure it meets the right standards and the latest technologies to face current security threats.These are the main sixphases of the System Development Life Cycle, and its an iterative process for each project. Its important to mention that excellent communication level should be maintained with the customer, and Prototypes are very important and helpful when it comes to meeting the requirements. By building the system in short iterations; we can guarantee meeting the customers requirements before we build the whole system. Many modelsofsystem development life cycle came up from the idea of saving effort, money and time, in addition to minimizing the risk of not meeting the customers requirement at the end of project, some ofthesesmodelsareSDLC Iterative Model, andSDLC Agile Model. The best of the bug capturing tools Continues improvement and fixing of the systemis essential, Airbrake provides robust bug capturing in your application. In doing so, it notifies you with bugs instantly, allows you to easily review them, tie the bug to an individual piece of code, and trace the cause back to recent changes. Airbrake enables for tocategorize, search, and prioritize errors so that when bugs occur, your team can quickly determine the root cause. The time and effort you saveby capturing your errorswith Airbrake is invaluable!

Anger in America essays

Anger in America essays Anger in America. Detroit Free Press. 17 Oct. 2004, Editorial In the Editorial listed above, the author, who has not signed to the article, discusses the recent problems facing Americans today. A Muslim activist mentioned in the article, Eide Alawan, says that, it is hard to tell what Americans might do when they get angry. With the recent string of events occurring throughout the past five years there is a lot of animosity going around. Alawan discusses the ever growing fear among the Arab American community since the September 11th attacks of 2001. They fear that a reliving of the Japanese Camps back in World War II will occur in the present. Americans, he says, have an ugly history of seeking scapegoats for its troubles. The country suffers from all kinds of tensions including this one. Perhaps the upcoming presidential election is proving to be quite a great deal of stress on the American people. He states that our country seems to be separated in many ways and the best job the next president can do is to reunite this country. We are divided by a number of things including race, politics, ethnicity, and even class. Americans want what is beneficial to themselves before opening the door unto others. Alawan tells readers that sure we have a lot to be angry about; job insecurity, terrorism, the increased traffic, soaring gas prices, and so many other hassles, but it takes so much more energy to be mad about something. Anger comes from misunderstanding and insecurity and the past should have taught us by now, that the future leads to even more regret to add to our problems. The type of anger found in this country is based on something completely different than in others. Anger is brought on by a lot of built up tension. At first one ignores minor details until they all begin to pile on. Eventually, frustration overcomes all. Americans are a nation of people who get angry at lea ...

Business Research for Social Media Marketing help

Social media marketing is gaining a lot of popularity in every industry lately. A large number of organizations are using this platform to introduce and promote their products, conduct consumer behavior analysis and generate effective feedback in order to constantly improve their products and services. Social media allows the organizations to target a wider customer base than any other marketing platform due to its wide usage. Even though social media is becoming a very popular platform for marketing, its impact on consumer behavior has yet not been completely identified. The number of people using social media is increasing every day, but how many people are actually using social media to actually gain product knowledge before buying it yet unknown. Therefore, the basic objective of this project is to conduct research on the impact of social media marketing on the purchasing behavior of the consumers. The research proposal sets a project objective, summarizes the literature review o n the topic of social media marketing, identifies the research questions, defines the research methodology and provides the conclusion. The aim of the project is to get a clear insight into the effect that social media marketing has on consumers and other relevant issues (Li, 2007).   The objective of this project is to identify the gaps in the literature review of social media marketing. Even though in-depth research and studies have been conducted by a number of researchers regarding the usage of social media for marketing purposes, its actual impact on the buying pattern of consumers is yet not identified accurately. While marketing is one of the basic factors in expanding the profitability of any association, it is critical to ensure that the right channels are used to capture the buyers. While the current situations and extensions for the advertisers to use the online networking for affecting the objective clients have been given, what stays missing is the variable that the handy usage of these ideas has not been contemplated in subtle elements. What's more, it can be seen that most of the writing are composed with the advertisers' perspective. Therefore, the conduct of the customer is enormously accepted as latent. The viewpoints of the purchasers are requir ed to be contemplated and investigated more to infer an adjusted conclusion. It can, consequently, be said that the necessity of more extensive viewpoint rises while concentrate the effect of online networking showcasing on customer conduct (Huang & Boh, 2011).   Fuchs (2013) describes that the web-based social networking is a stage where the content of the web is modified and shared by the clients at any given time. The mind boggling parts of the online networking have been clarified in this given writing which explains on the positive and negative parts of the web-based social networking stage. The prerequisite of data in regards to the media has been set up with contextual investigations on Facebook, Google, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia. Therefore, the power of the media scene in this new stage is clarified. One might say that the different parts of the online networking has been clarified with suitable contextual analysis. Be that as it may, the viability of the same on the conduct of the standard clients is clarified in a constrained way (Fuchs, 2013).   Then again, another part of the web-based social networking as a showcasing device has been clarified too. It can be found in the review embraced by Hays et al. (2013) that the online networking is one of the intense devices which can ensure that any business can achieve a more extensive number of target clients with usage of restricted assets. The noticeable quality of these stages as the appropriate components of a goal promoting association has been expounded too. The goal showcasing associations of the main 10 most went by nations are contemplated with the assistance of semi organized meetings. It can see from the review that the use of the online networking among the DMOs is as yet not that pertinent. Nonetheless, different trial systems are directed which can be powerful in guaranteeing that the valuable business methodologies are actualized to witness significant development for the business (Hays & Page, 2013). Tuten and Solomon (2014) depict that with a specific end goal to ensure that the online networking showcasing can procure the set targets and ready to achieve any business towards impressive objectives, it is essential that the appropriate utilization of procedures are finished. It is fundamental that the most fitting technique is chosen for any given organization and it is connected such that it suits the business. What's more, it has been illustrated in the review that how the esse4ntial hypotheses of promoting can be essentially connected in the viable circle and how the most helpful business results are obtained appropriately (Kjellnas, 2014). In any case, it has been clarified by the creators that catching the consideration of the clients is insufficient to guarantee the control of client conduct. It is essential that the consideration is changed over into intrigue. In this manner, the prerequisite of connecting with into the correct correspondence channel can said to be a powerful way. The acknowledgment of the shopper towards an item is critical to ensure that the association can get the standard notoriety in the market. Subsequently, understanding their prerequisites and viewpoints has been perceived by the creators too. In this manner, the vitality of systems to impact the customer acquiring conduct has been perceived and explained by the creators.   While web-based social networking is considered as a noteworthy instrument in showcasing nowadays, the insightful energy of the buyers with respect to the same has been clarified by Solomon (2014). It has been seen by the creator that so as to ensure that the shopper conduct is influenced by the online networking advertising, it is vital that proper estimations should be possible. The general sentiment any shopper with respect to a specific situation of promoting in any commercial center is required to be considered. Thus, the idea of the customer's slant toward Marketing (CSM) has been recorded by the creator as a strong device to decide if they are persuaded enough to buy a specific item or administration which is being promoted on the online stage (Solomon, 2014).   The research questions in this report revolve around social media marketing and its impact on consumer behavior. The questions have been divided in two categories namely, primary research question and secondary research question. The primary question will be the main focus of the research proposal and the secondary question will consist of other relevant questions related to the topic. The main aim of the research is to analyse the impact of online social media networks on the buying behavior of the customers. In order to investigate and collect data for conducting the research, proper methods of data collection need to be used. It is easy to collect general information, but collecting information that is relevant to the purpose of analysis can be be difficult.. There research type can be broadly categorized into two approaches; inductive and deductive.. A deductive research can be used to anticipate the trends in future on the basis of the theories that already exist. In case of inductive research, the theories are developed on the basis of data and empirical findings. The study to be conducted in this report is inclined on inductive research that would   help to gather descriptive data and assist in obtaing empirical results. Inductive research can be used to obtain the answers for both primary and secondary question by anylzing the responses of consumers about the way they use of social media and its relevant impact on their shopping style..   The method used to carry the anlalysis in this study is qualitative research method   instead of the quantitative research method. The reason behind choosing this method is that the aim of the study to find how effective social media is when it comes to the buying behavior of the consumers, hence we need to focus more on qualitative data than on numbers. The qualitative focuses on the observations and content analysis of the data collected rather than the volume and number of data. The qualitative research tends to be more flexible and adjustable as compared to quantitative research. There are a number of different sources from which the data for the purpose of study can be gathered. The collected data can be used for various purposes, depending on the type of the information collected, hence it is very important to get the information from the right place keeping in mind the aim of the study. Primary data collection is a cost intensive process as it involves collecting the most fresh version of information mostly from people directly. Whereas secondary data is collected from various existing facts and information. For conducting analysis in this report, the method of telephonic interviews and personal interviews has been used to get a first hand version of data. After the data was collected using interviews, the impact of social media was analyzed on the purchasing power of the buyer. The majority of the people that were interviewed said that they used social media pages of a particular company to get to know about the current promotional offers and discounts that are being offered by the company. They also revealed that even if they were not planning to visit a particular store, social media offers would push them to at least go have a look. Most of these visitors ended up buying something from the store during their visit. This clearly shows that organizations that have a social media presence can easily lure the social media users into buying something for them. This however doesn’t necessarily mean profit maximization, but it definitely increases the customer base of the organization.   Consumers also used social media to find out information about organization for instance, in case of retail stores, the consumers can find about the opening and closing times of the store, the product range offered by the store, the nearest located store and other features that may assist in making the customer choose to shop in a particular store. Certain stores also offer a virtual tour online that helps the consumers to get a hypothetical visit to the store. This shows that social media surely has an impact on the buying pattern of the consumers. The secondary question in this research proposal was to find out the reasons why social media has an effect on the buying behavior of the consumers. To be more specific, Facebook has been considered as a social media platform and the interviews were conducted to find out why Facebook presence of any organization was having an impact on its customers. The first reason that was identified was that Facebook has the maximum number of users that any other social media site possesses. Additionally, people tend to spend a large amount of time on Facebook. Since the application is available on the mobile phones too, people are practically connected to Facebook all the time (Lee, 2016). A lot of respondents confessed that they do not watch tv everyday, don’t read the newspaper every day but use Facebook everyday without fail. 6 out of 10 respondents said that they use Facebook and Google to find out information about the products they want to buy. The consumers also use the comments an d feedback of other users to find out the popularity of the products among masses. This gave the users a reality check about the efficiency of the products before even buying them. The users on social media sites are genuine and reliable, who also get into discussions about a particular product or service offered by different organizations. People share their experiences and help each other with alternative options that might be unknown to someone. So, wide coverage and human interaction are the two major causes behind the effect of social media having an impact on the consumer behavior (Chaffey, 2017).   To conclude, it can be said, social media’s gaining popularity is surely having an impact on the buying behavior of consumers these days. People are not only using social media to find out about new products and services, but are also using this medium to find out about the quality of these products and services even before getting their hands on them. Social media can be used by organizations in two ways; firstly to catch the attention of consumers and secondly to use consumer feedback to improve their products. Every organization which has an active social media presence tends to become more popular among the general public in comparison to organizations with no or inactive social media presence. Since, the technology is advancing every day, the importance of social media in affecting the consumer behavior is anticipated to keep getting stronger. Chaffey, D., 2017. Global social media research summary 2017, Available at: https://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-media-strategy/new-global-social-media-research/ Fuchs, C., 2013. Social Media and Capitalism: In Producing the Internet. Critical, Available at: https://fuchs.uti.at/wp-content/SocialMediaCapitalism.pdf Hays, S. & Page, H., 2013. Social media as a destination marketing tool: its use by national tourism organisations. Current Issues in Tourism, 16(3). Huang, J. & Boh, W., 2011. From A Social Influence Perspective: The Impact Of Social Media On Movie Sales, Available at: https://aisel.aisnet.org/pacis2011/79/ Kjellnas, M., 2014. Social media as a marketing tool versus strategic alliance  ­ a comparison, Available at: https://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2:825909/FULLTEXT01.pdf Lee, K., 2016. Why You Should Share to Social Media in the Afternoon + More of the Latest Social Media Research, Available at: https://blog.bufferapp.com/new-social-media-research Li, C., 2007. How Consumers Use Social Networks, Available at: https://www.eranium.at/blog/upload/consumers_socialmedia.pdf Solomon, 2014. Social media marketing, Available at: https://www.docsity.com/it/social-media-marketing-t-l-tuten-e-m-r-solomon-2014/830881/

How does the picture of the Catilinarian conspiracy differ between Essay

How does the picture of the Catilinarian conspiracy differ between Cicero and Sallust To what do you attribute these differences - Essay Example But the plot was unearthed followed by the execution of five conspirators, and this revelation compelled Catiline to escape from Rome. Many historians and political experts of the age have presented vivid accounts of Catiline’s life and his famous conspiracy. But of all these, the accounts put forward by Cicero and Sallust stand out in terms of their vivid details, eloquent language and authenticity of information. Marcus Tullius Cicero  was one of the greatest philosophers and prose writers of Rome. Apart from his accomplishments in the sphere of oration and his career as a lawyer, one of his major achievements was his political career. It was in the course of his political career as a consul that the  Second Catilinarian Conspiracy occurred. However, the  attempt to overthrow the Roman government through an external attack was foiled and the ensuing revolt was supressed at that time largely due to the efforts of Cicero. Subsequently, he acquired a Senatus Consultum Ultimum and delivered four fervent speeches against Catiline for his treachery against the Republic. These speeches, collectively known as the Catiline Orations, are classified as rare specimens of an extraordinary rhetorical style. The speeches revealed the truth about the depravity and corruption practised by Catiline and his followers, while denouncing them for extending their support and sympathy to a treacherous rogue l ike Catiline. The acerbic and sardonic tone of the speeches was effective enough to drive Catiline and his followers out of the city. The speech was delivered at the Temple of Jupiter Stator, and was directly addressed to Catiline. The rhetoric was so powerful that Catiline was forced to leave the senate midway during the course of Cicero’s speech. The subsequent speeches, that yielded more evidence against Catiline, were addressed to the people and the senate. Cicero’s first speech was relatively short and precise. It was remarkable for its opening remarks

Organ Donation- How recipients are chosen and should donors be Research Paper

Organ Donation- How recipients are chosen and should donors be compensated - Research Paper Example Australia is a nation where most of the organs transplantations are carried out successfully (Benedetti, 21). â€Å"People of all ages and background can be used for the process of organ donation. If a person is under 18, then the parent or the guardian must give permission in order to become the donor. If an individual is 18 or older, then the person should be the donor by signing the donor card† (Petechuk, 67). The entire procedures that delegates organs to recipients, who entail them is formulated in a way, so that it is as fair and just as possible without any preferences or biases. The delegation of organs is guided along by protocols, which are mostly formed by the transplantation societies existing in countries. In particular, different groups manage the waiting lists depending on the organ, and the geographical area where the organ recipient resides. When an organ other than kidney is used for transplantation, then it is generally offered to transplant units in that pa rticular state and if there is no appropriate recipient, then the organ is offered to transplant units in another state and geographical jurisdiction, to promote parity (Humar, 31).

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (the King) and Seneca’s Oedipus Essay -- compar

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (the King) and Seneca’s Oedipus    Contrary to Sophocles’ Oedipus that was written to the Greeks, a peaceful and wise audience, Seneca’s Oedipus was written to the Romans, a militaristic and violent community.   Seneca successfully appeals to the elements of Roman literature; therefore, Edith Hamilton in The Roman Way calls him the â€Å"Father of sentimental drama.†Ã‚   Seneca wrote the play in around 50 AD about 480 years after Sophocles’ production.   The Roman audience responded to a melodramatic plot rather than the tragic theme of the former Oedipus.   Seneca, in rewriting the play Oedipus makes significant adjustments to suit the Roman audience, particularly plot and style changes. Melodrama in this sense (compared to tragedy) draws forth more of an emotional, pitiful reaction and any evidence of fear is removed; on the contrary, the emotion of pity is exaggerated and stressed.   The Greek wisdom and their capability to see beauty in all life created a desire for tragedy which draws forth reactions of both pity and fear; according to the Greeks, tragedy portrays mankind at his finest, standing tall among suffering and capable of heroism by overcoming evil.   Edith Hamilton in The Roman Way says, â€Å" . . . the unfamiliar and the extraordinary were on the whole repellent to them (the Greeks) and they detested every form of exaggeration.†Ã‚   She goes on to say, â€Å"Greek tragedy had no appeal as the Romans understood the words.†Ã‚   The Romans viewed life as cheap, almost worthless; therefore, to appeal to this audience, Seneca made fate seem merciless, while Sophocles suggested a tragic flaw, indicating the partial fault of the character. The plot of Sophocles’ and Seneca’s Oedipus are much the same.   Oedipus... ...d concentration on fate, Seneca appeals to the vicious Roman audience he writes to, as opposed to Sophocles’ pensive Greek audience.   The Roman audience desired more violent literature, and responded to the concept that fate and predestination were inescapable, while the Greek audience defined tragedy, including a tragic flaw of the character, as mankind at his best because the character becomes wise.   Seneca in rewriting the original Oedipus tragedy, removes any indication of fear, completely concentrating on the emotion of pity.   While Sophocles’ Oedipus can be called Greek tragedy, Seneca’s Oedipus exaggerates pity and disgust and must be classified as melodrama.   Instead of arousing pity and fear from the audience, Seneca uses plot and style changes and simply appeals to the emotion of pity to adhere to his Roman audience.               

America’s Commercial Airline Industry

1989 has been a year in which both aviation experts and spokesmen. For the flying public have expressed intensified concern over what they perceive to be a substantial deterioration in the safety of America†s passenger airline operations. In the first nine months of 1989 alone, there have been ten fatal air crashes involving large transport-category planes owned by U. S. based carriers (Ott p. 28). This compares disfavorably to the first nine of months of 1988, when but two such accidents took place, and in fact, it is the highest number of death-causing accidents for the American commercial aviation industry during the 1980s (Fotos p. ). This spate of airborne tragedies has prompted interested parties to ask a series of disturbing questions. Is it now safe to fly on American owned airlines, and, related to this, is it now riskier to board these planes than it was before industry deregulation took place in 1978? What, if any, specific factors have contributed to the perceived decline in the industry†s safety standards? Finally, what, if anything, can be done to enhance the airworthiness of U. S. passenger planes and to improve the safety performance of the crews who man them? In this paper, all three of these questions will be addressed, and, without advancing too far ahead, we discover that there simply are no definitive answers to any of them. As serious accidents among America†s air carriers have mounted in 1989, a â€Å"conventional wisdom† has supplied a plausible account of the historical roots of the present safety problem. In 1978, the Federal government de-regulated the U. S. airline industry. Faced with an increasingly competitive environment, individual carriers tried to hold down fares by making cost-related cuts in policies and procedures related to safety. Many have argued that, â€Å"increased competition may lead airlines to skimp on investments in safety,†(Bornstein and Zimmerman p. 913) by, for example, allowing aging planes to take to the skies following routine inspections rather than replacing them with new craft. But there is an overarching problem with this explanation: 1989†³s accidents apart, empirical data suggest that it is currently safer to fly on a plane operated by a major U. S. air carrier than it was ten years ago! In 1978, the odds of a large airliner†s becoming involved in fatal crash were one for every million aircraft departures; ten years later, that proportion has dropped to around one in every 2. 25 million departures (McConnel p. 207). On the whole, it is, in fact, comparatively safe to fly, and even with 1989 crash incidents added to the aggregated figures, flying is no more dangerous today than it was prior to deregulation. The Federal Aviation Administration, the National Transportation Safety Board and an array of independent air safety experts have all probed this year†s major airline accidents. Despite all of post hoc study, they have been unable to discern a common link among them, (Ott p. 28) with one major exception. The qualification at hand refers to dramatic increase in the volume of air traffic since de-regulation. According to NTSB member John Lauber, † ‘ if there is a trend in accidents, it is a trend set by the increasing volume of air transport operations rather than any fundamental deterioration in the margins of safety (Ott p. 28). At first glance, this argument is comforting: more flights in the air simply result in more accidents commensurate with higher traffic volumes, so that the impact of de-regulation has had only the broadest and most indirect influences upon the industry†s safety record. But to ascribe the recent rash of safety problems to the â€Å"neutral† effect of higher traffic volume in the wake of de-regulation and leave it at that overlooks several critical points. For example, to remain competitive, many airlines schedule flights in clusters for the convenience of their passengers. This, in turn, as Rudolf Kapustin (an independent industry- watcher) states, tends to increase risks among flight occurring at â€Å"peak times (Ott p. 28). † Far more worrisome, when accidents for smaller, commuter or regional airlines are factored in, we find that 16 percent of all airlines had safety records considerably worse than the norm, accounting for nearly 80 percent of all airborne accidents between 1977 and 1984 (Ott p. 30). These figures strongly indicate that policies and practices by the airlines themselves may have acted as variables that have had a role in recent accidents. There are two major factors that appear to have had a part in this year†s major carrier crashes, both of which can be related to cost cutting challenges upon the airlines unleashed by de-regulation. The first of these concerns the planes themselves. There is evidence to suggest that some U. S. airlines are operating a higher percentage of â€Å"high time† or â€Å"geriatric† aircraft than was previously the case. About 2,300 of the 8,000 odd commercial jets flown by major airline crews have passed twenty years of continuous service. Plainly, aging fleets have some immediate linkage to two recent air fatalities. In April, 1988 Aloha Airlines 737 experienced a structural collapse; a huge section of the upper fuselage peeled off; one flight attendant was killed and sixty-one passengers were injured. â€Å"The aircraft in question,† investigators found, had logged some 90,000 take-off/landing duty cycle, † the second highest number recorded by any jetliner operating in the free world. Eight months later, with the Aloha case still under study, a United Airlines 747 bound for Honolulu literally disintegrated in the air over the Pacific Ocean, resulting in nine deaths. This craft was another â€Å"veteran† plane, one that had a maintenance record suggesting increasing safety problems. Clearly, there is an economic motive behind airline operation of â€Å"geriatric† planes. A Boeing 737, for example, cost around $25 million at present, so that, † it is in the economic interest of an airline to prolong the life of its current fleet if it can do so at reasonable cost and without compromising safety. In the opinion of some critics, given the competitive pressures of a de-regulated market environment, some airlines are paying too much attention to this economic imperative, and, conversely, too little care to the maintenance of adequate safety standards. Most jet transport accidents are not the result of equipment failure; a full two-thirds can be attributed to human error. At present, all U. S. air carriers, major airlines and regionals alike, are facing a reduced pool of qualified pilots and flight personnel to staff their crews. De-regulation has meant a higher level of demand for a finite number of qualified crew members, and, at the same time, the number of potential crew members leaving the nation†s armed forces (the traditional mainstay of new hires for the airlines) has dropped sharply in recent years. As has been noted in a recent issue of Aviation Week & Space Technology: † the major airlines are reported to be drastically reducing the amount of flying time they require from applicants, â€Å"and while † there is no shortage of applicants (there is) a shortage of highly qualified ones (Pilot Turnover†¦ p. 91). Inexperienced pilots tend to make more mistakes than their veteran counterparts, so that the labor demand growth that has taken place with deregulation coupled with a reduced number of former armed forces pilots available may well be a factor undermining airline safety. Having stated that it is, in general, safe to board U. S. operated planes, yet another qualification must be made at this juncture. Smaller carriers, flying short routes and known as â€Å"commuter† airlines have much worse safety records than the major airlines. According to McConnell: In the past decade, commuter airlines have had 81 fatal accidents, Killing 384 people. In 1987 alone 35 accidents caused 58 deaths. And in the first two months of 1988, crashes killed 22. The Commuters† fatal accidents rate per 100,000 departures has averaged Seven times that of the major airlines (McConnel p. 206). These smaller carriers, like their major airlines counternumbers, are subject to FAA monitoring and regulation, and the results of FAA inquiries into the safety of the commuter lines has led the Agency to suspend or revoke commuter airline operating certificates on 58 occasions since 1981 for safety violations. The heart of the problem with the commuter airlines resides in the shrinking pool of qualified pilots available to them (Ott p. 28). Generally offering lower pay than the majors, the commuter lines have experienced a drain of talent as many of their most experienced pilots have left to take positions with the majors. In 1985, major U. S. carriers hired some 7,600n new pilots; the majority of them previously worked for commuter airlines (McConnel p. 209). At the same time, willingness of the majors to accept less qualified pilots from sources apart from the regionals has decreased the quality of regional hires yet another notch (Pilot Turnover†¦ p. 91). The trend toward less experienced crews in this segment of the industry is undeniable. † The pilots hired by U. S. regionals who had less than 2,000 hr. flight time rose 22. 3% of those hired in 1985 to 36. 2% in the first six months of 1989 (Ott p. 29). In addition to a declining level of experience in the cockpits of commuter aircraft, these pilots face demands that often exceed those placed upon pilots working for the majors. On some small carriers, pilots face several trips a day between under-equipped airfields, and in addition must plan routes, study weather, handle baggage and even fuel the plane. Fatigue can become a factor (McConnel p. 207). To fill spots, regionals have tried to lure flight instructors from flying schools into their ranks (Pilots Turnover†¦ p. 91). Unfortunately, by engaging in this practice, the regionals reduce the capacity of the nation†s flight schools to enlarge the pool of personnel available to all carriers. If a shortage of qualified crew members is identified as a factor that has some causal relation to a perceived decline in American air carrier safety, this effect is most acute at the level of the commuter/regional firms. The evidence regarding the effect of de-regulation upon safety for American airlines is mixed, inconclusive, but nevertheless broad enough. Common sense tells us that older planes and less experienced crews will have a negative impact upon safety, and, in the case of commuter lines, the latter has probably contributed to a performance record significantly below that of the major carriers. Given that a case can be made that identifiable variables are now eroding flight safety, the question naturally becomes: What can be done to remedy or, at least, ameliorate this situation? The FAA formed an Airworthiness Assurance Task Force shortly after the Aloha incident, and, in February, 1989, this body issued its recommendations. These proposals generally dealt with the tandem problems of aging fleets and inexperienced crews. Regarding the former, The Task Force noted that in several recent accidents, parts that had either been inspected and passed review or parts that were thought to have an â€Å"infinite† working life, broke down. The Airworthiness Assurance Task Force recommended to the FAA an $800 million program to upgrade older aircraft. The key provision would mandate the replacement of various parts and assemblies at specified time intervals, even if inspection detected no flaws. In other words, the industry would move to a plan of preventive replacement, rather than preventive maintenance. The plan would require repairs in about one of every five jetliners currently in service (Hoffer p115). The FAA itself has followed up on this recommendation: this year the agency mandated replacement of rivets on older 727s, and in the near future, the order will be extended to veteran 737s and 747s as well. The cost of all this promises to be high, amounting to an average of around $600,000 per plane. Still, conducted on a phased basis, it does not spell financial ruin for the majors, and given FAA powers, they have no choice but to comply. The FAA has also made recommendations regarding improvement of crew performance. It has, for example, suggested that airlines should â€Å"avoid pairing two pilots who may be qualified but inexperienced, either as pilot or in the particular aircraft type they would be flying (Ott p. 29). † The Agency has also urged that only experienced pilots be given control over aircraft during times of severe weather conditions. Both of these proposals have been accepted by the industry. Far more controversial, the FAA has also endorsed the idea of setting autonomous safety departments within each airline that would have absolute power to ground flights or personnel on the basis of safety. These departments would actively monitor pilot performance through retrospective examination of data contained in tapes on flight recorders (Fotos p. 31). Although the airlines see such a move as having safety-enhancing outcomes, the notion that control over scheduled flights will be ceded by line management to a safety procedures, has met with some resistance. At bottom, implementing the FAA†s suggestions will carry a step price tag in both financial and management labor terms, and taken together, may contribute to a second round of shakeouts, as weaker carriers will not be able to bear these costs and continue to be competitive.